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Caesar & the End of the RepublicContentsSummaryGaius Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC. He was born into a patrician family and lost his father at a young age. At an early age, he was harshly persecuted by Sulla, the enemy of his uncle Marius, who predicted Caesar to be ruin of Rome. When Sulla had finally given up trying to persecute him, Caesar quickly came back to Rome and started a political and military career. At the beginning of this career, he was sent on many military expeditions. He became a cunning military figure, but also advanced through the rungs of the Roman political ladder with speed and skill. When elected consul, he virtually ruled alone and unchallenged by his fellow consul Bibulus, who had gone home after Caesar defeated him. Caesar had a lust for power, and power that only he could control. He persuaded Pompey and Crassus, two famous political and military figures, to join him and together they formed the First Triumvirate. They used their combined power to subdue the Senate, and consequently were able to propose and pass acts unchecked. During this time, Caesar took a campaign in Gaul, conquering all of the vast land and leaving a Roman influence before he left. As his relationship worsened with Pompey, both men started to fight for power. Pompey persuaded the Senate to ask Caesar to abdicate his command, which Caesar did not take lightly. As a response, he took his troops and invaded Rome. He started a civil war, which he won by defeating Pompey in numerous battles. Caesar then took full control of Rome and the title of dictator, causing the Senate to fear his power. Due to his own lust for power and unwillingness to share it, Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC. After Caesar’s death, Rome immediately fell into disorder and turmoil. IntroductionGaius Julius Caesar was born on July 13, 100 BC (Toynbee) to Gaius Julius Caesar (Sr.) and Marcia (Suetonius 275). Caesar was born into the Caesares family, which was the only family left in a larger “house” called the Julii. His family was of the patrician class, and was descended from the first inhabitants of Rome. In fact, he claimed that his lineage could be traced farther back to the goddess of love, Venus. Although his family had a deep connection to the founders of Rome, it was neither rich nor influential. His family had produced only three consuls. Caesar’s only significant relative was his uncle Gaius Marius, who had lost a Roman civil war to the merciless Sulla. It was even an disadvantage for Caesar to belong to his family because he would be prohibited from running for the position of tribune (involved in vetoing any bill), which could only be held by a commoner (Toynbee). Despite his numerous disadvantages, Caesar climbed quickly through the rungs of the Roman political ladder and obtained great power, winning the support of the Roman people. Early LifeAt the age of fifteen, in 84 BC, Caesar lost his father (Suetonius 11). This incident left his mother a widow and him without a father, but he rebounded by being elected Flamen Dialis (a priest of Jupiter) in the same year (Ferrill). He also decided, in that year, to break his childhood engagement with Cossutia, a rich girl of the equestrian class. He may have not been satisfied by her family status, and instead married Cornelia, the daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna. His decision was almost certainly affected by the fact that Cinna had been consul four times and was the ally of his uncle Marius. Being tied with Cinna definitely gave him strong political connections. When Sulla defeated Caesar’s uncle Marius and won the civil war in Rome, he ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia. Caesar, seeing that Sulla did not like his connections with Marius’s ally, refused. Sulla, therefore, took away Caesar’s priesthood, wife’s dowry, and Caesar’s inheritance, forcing Caesar to flee and hide. Only by the persistence of the pleading from his relatives and the Vestal Virgins was Caesar allowed to return to Rome. Upon Caesar’s return, Sulla said to Caesar’s supporters, “‘But never forget that the man whom you want me to spare will one day prove the ruin of the party which you and I have so long defended. There are many Mariuses in this fellow Caesar.’” (Suetonius 11-13). Having returned to Rome, Caesar decided to officially start his Roman career. He started his career by doing military service in Asia under Marcus Thermus in 81 BC. He was then sent to Bithynia to create a fleet and ended up being distracted by King Nicomedes. Caesar lingered at the king’s court so extensively that he was suspected of having a homosexual affair with the king (Suetonius 13). His stay at King Nicomedes’s court led to the saying that he was “Every woman’s man and every man’s woman” (Ferrill). In 78 BC, when Sulla died and a revolt sprang up in Rome, Caesar immediately hurried back to Rome to help settle the revolt. After peace was established, Caesar decided to go to Rhodes to learn rhetoric from Apollonius Molon. Unfortunately, he was captured by pirates on his way there. He cleverly paid the ransom that the pirates demanded, got off the pirate ship, and raised an army to chase after the pirates. When he caught the pirates, he showed no mercy and had them crucified. After collecting his money, he continued on to Rhodes (Suetonius 13-14). Then in 74 BC, Caesar was achieved his first major assignment. He was ordered to subdue the forces of King Mithradates VI of Pontus, and he this did by summoning a private army (Toynbee). After his battle with King Mithradates, Caesar returned to Rome, winning his quaestorship (the first position in the Roman political system) 69 BC. As happy as Caesar was, he lost both his aunt Julia (Marius’s wife) and his wife Cornelia in that same year. After mourning his losses and attending Julia and Cornelia’s funerals, he resumed his life as a quaestor (involved with public money and tax), going to Further Spain. During his work as a quaestor in Further Spain, he had a dream of raping his own mother, which he interpreted as an omen of his possible future conquest of Mother Earth. After serving his quaestorship, Caesar ironically married Pompeia, the granddaughter of his former enemy Sulla and became one of the aediles (involved in public affairs such as festivals) in 65 BC. As an aedile, he filled the Forum, the basilicas, and the Capitol with many paintings and held many gladiatorial shows and wild beast hunts, winning the heart and trust of the public and the tribunes (Suetonius 14-16). He went on to become the Pontifex Maximus (the Chief Priest) in 63 BC and a praetor (involved in the law courts) in 62 BC. While serving his praetorship, Public Clodius caused a scandal at his house when his wife Pompeia was holding a celebration of Bona Dea (a goddess of fruitfulness). This celebration was exclusively for women, and by being present there, Clodius committed a harmful sin (Toynbee). This scandal instantly caught Caesar’s attention and led him to divorce Pompeia under suspicion of adultery, saying, “‘Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion’” (“Caesar, Julius”). ConsulshipAfter his close encounter with a humiliating catastrophe, Caesar left for Further Spain in 61 BC. He returned to Rome in 60 BC, to prepare to stand for the position of consul (one of two co-presidents) in 59 BC (Toynbee). He teamed up with the rich Lucius Luceius and won the consulship, along with Marcus Bibulus. During his consulship, Caesar issued the agrarian law (regarding public land dispersion), which Bibulus opposed. Consequently, Bibulus was driven out of the Forum by Caesar’s supporters and stayed home for the rest of his consulship, making Caesar the only consul with “actual” power (Suetonius 20-21). During this time, he also managed to win the favor of Pompey (Gaius Pompeius Magnus) and Marcus Licinius Crassus, both former allies of Sulla (Toynbee). Together they formed the First Triumvirate, with Pompey possessing most of the soldiers, Crassus possessing most of the money, and Caesar possessing most of the popularity (Ferrill). To strengthen his ties with Pompey, he allowed Pompey to marry his only daughter Julia (59 BC). After a year of consulship, he married Calpurnia, the daughter of Lucius Po, in 58 BC (the year that Po was consul). He managed to get governorship of Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul, and Illyricum (Toynbee). Thus, he traveled to Gaul in the March of 58 BC and started another campaign. Campaign in GaulOn his campaign in Gaul from 58-50 BC, Caesar wrote every winter about the summer’s campaign. The collection of books was published as De Bello Gallico (About the Gallic War) (Cheilik). In Gaul, Caesar acquired a total of four legions, each with about five to six thousand troops. At first, he faced a Germanic tribe from present Switzerland called the Helvetii. They burned their own houses to stop him from seizing them. Eventually Caesar defeated them in Bibracte (modern-day southern France). He then faced King Ariovistus, the chieftain of the Suebic tribe, whom he defeated between the Rhine River and the Vosges Mountains. In 57 BC, Caesar suppressed a revolt by the Nervii tribe, who feared of Roman advancement. He then moved on to Britannia (modern-day Britain), and conquered the Veneti (a Celtic tribe) in a naval battle, becoming the first leader to invade Britannia in 55 BC. He left Britannia without any stationed troops, hurrying back to Gaul to subdue the many revolts (Sage). In that same year, Pompey and Crassus were both elected consuls. They passed a law that allowed Caesar five more years in Gaul, Pompey five more years in Spain, and Crassus five more years in Syria (Toynbee). Unfortunately, Crassus died in 53 BC in a war against the Parthians, breaking the Triumvirate (Knight, “Triumvirate” 401). In 52 BC, Caesar fought the most difficult battle of his Gallic campaign. The chief of the Arveni tribe Vercingetorix gathered his forces of eighty thousand and attacked the Roman fortifications. Caesar lost his first battle in Gaul to Vercingetorix (Sage), a minor loss compared to the death of Pompeia in 54 BC (Toynbee). He recovered quickly, trapping Vercingetorix in Alesia (modern-day central France). He ordered his soldiers to build a colossal wall of earth, which prevented the Gallic reinforcements from rescuing Vercingetorix and forcing his forces to surrender. By 51 BC, Caesar had no resistance. By controlling all of Gaul, he created a permanent and evident boundary between the home of the Germanic and Romance languages (Sage). He created a financial boom for Rome from the four hundred thousand gold pieces of annual tribute he extracted from Gaul (Suetonius 25). He left Gaul with many important, everlasting marks, including Roman architecture and agriculture, and contributed greatly to the Roman expansion (Sage). Civil WarMeanwhile in Rome, Pompey and the Senate were becoming jealous and slightly fearful of Caesar. Gaius Claudius Marcellus proposed that Caesar should lose his power and command of his army (Suetonius 26). Caesar proposed that Pompey and he both lose their command, but it was of no success. On January 10 of 49 BC, Caesar led his troops across the Rubicon River, the boundary between Gaul and Italia (Italy), starting a civil war (Toynbee). It is rumored that he said “‘Iacta alea est’” (the die is cast) as he crossed the river (“Caesar, Julius”). The Senate fled to Capua (“Caesar, Julius”) and Pompey to Brundisium, a city in southern Italia (Cheilik). Pompey then fled to Spain, where he gathered his troops. Caesar immediately followed Pompey, defeating him in Spain and in Pharsalus, Greece, on August 9, 48 BC (Toynbee). Pompey then fled to Alexandria, Egypt, where he was assassinated by King Ptolemy XIII (Knight, “Triumvirate” 401). Caesar followed Pompey into Egypt, where he met Cleopatra, Ptolemy’s sister, and made her the queen of Egypt. He stayed there with her for a while, and she bore him a child, whom he named Caesarion (Ferrill). In 47 BC, he defeated King Pharnaces of Pontus, making the famous remark “‘Veni, vidi, vici’” (I came, I saw, I conquered) about his campaign in Egypt (Toynbee). Caesar also wrote a book about the civil war, named De Bello Civili (About the Civil War) (Cheilik). AssassinationReturning to Rome, Caesar took control and established peace. He was declared dictator for life in 45 BC and made consul for 10 years (Cheilik). He was even called the Parens Patriae (Father of the Homeland) (Ferrill). During his dictatorship, he made several important reform in Roman society. He eliminated the corrupt tax system and renamed the month of Quintilis to Julius (Cheilik). Just as Caesar was beginning to relax and Rome was beginning to recover, sixty conspirators, led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus, plotted to kill Caesar. They had many plans, but decided that the Senate meeting taking place on March 15 was the most convenient time (Suetonius 42). This decision was also made because Caesar was planning to leave Rome on March 18 to conquer the Parthians. On March 14, the day before his assassination, Caesar dined at Marcus Lepidus’s house and was asked how he would like to die. He unknowingly and simply responded “‘Let it come swiftly and unexpectedly’” (Jiménez 234-35). It had seemed that Caesar did not know anything about his death. However, Caesar was shown many omens of his upcoming death. Before his assassination, he visited the augur Spurinna, who told him death would wait no longer than the Ides of March (March 15). A day before his death he saw a small King Bird with a laurel sprig (Caesar wore a laurel wreath) fly into a hall. Immediately following were a flock of birds of a different species, which tore up the King Bird and killed it. He himself, the night before his death, had a dream of flying into the clouds and meeting Jupiter. His wife Calpurnia had a dream the same night of Caesar lying stabbed in her arms (Suetonius 42). These omens must have had an impact on Caesar because he stayed at home away from the Senate meeting for five hours, before Brutus persuaded him to leave. As Caesar approached and entered the Senate building, the Senators advanced forward to greet him. When he had gotten to the podium, Lucius Cimber pulled Caesar’s toga down, signaling for the conspirators to attack (Jiménez 235-36). Shouting “‘This is violence’” (Suetonius 43), the great general and statesman Julius Caesar was stabbed a total of twenty-four times, ending his life on the Ides of March, 44 BC (Jiménez 236). It has been debated, but it is thought that Caesar said “‘You too, my child?’” to Brutus in Greek when he caught the sight of Brutus, his ally, stabbing him (Suetonius 44). Only two people, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, have recorded Caesar saying this phrase (Jiménez 236), which gave way for the famous saying “Et tu, Brute?”. After DeathAfter the assassination, the citizens of Rome were stunned and Rome fell into disorder. Mark Antony, a loyal tribune to Caesar, decreed to deify Caesar. Antony also retrieved and read Caesar’s will. It left three-fourths of Caesar’s estate to Gaius Octavius, later named Augustus, and the remainder to Octavius’s two brothers (Suetonius 44-45). On March 20, Caesar’s body was placed on a pyre in the Forum and burned (Jiménez 239-40). The Roman Republic then tumbled into chaos for a lengthy period until Octavius (Augustus) formed the first Roman Empire in 31 BC (Suetonius 277). Julius Caesar was a magnificent and clever general, statesman, and politician. His flaw was that he did not persecute his enemies (Toynbee). He could not share his power, and it led to his own death (Jiménez 240). However, it should be known that was not only a man of daring but of great intellect. His achievements have rivaled those of the great leaders of history, of Augustus, of Napoleon, and have proved him to be one of the greatest and most distinguished leaders in all of history. His legacy has lived to his day and he has significantly influenced the history of the entire planet. The Germans got their word for emperor, Kaiser, from his name. The Russians got their word for emperor, Czar, from him too (Ferrill). His name continued to be used for the title of Emperor in Rome, as shown by Suetonius’s The Twelve Caesars. Many people believe that he was only a “ambitious demagogue” (“Caesar, Julius”) who only desired power. Nonetheless, we should remember his accomplishments and contributions to history, and thank him for it. Notes1. Although his last name is Tranquillius, I refer to him as Suetonius because the library has that name on the barcode and that name is referred to throughout the book and throughout history. See entry in Bibliography. 2. Pompey was also a military and political leader who was born in 106 BC. He gained his reputation and popularity during many battles, such as one in 77 BC where he put down a slave revolt (Knight, “Collapse” 398). He also gained some respect by ridding the sea of sea pirates in 67 BC (Nardo 67).
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Bibliography“Caesar, Julius.” The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2007. Columbia UP. 26 Dec. 2007 <http://www.bartleby.com/65/ca/Caesar-J.html>. Cheilik, Michael S. “Julius Caesar.” MSN Encarta. 2007. Microsoft. 31 Dec. 2007 <http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761578066/Julius_Caesar.html>. Ferrill, Arther. "Caesar, Julius." Encyclopedia Americana. 2007. Grolier Online. 31 Dec. 2007 <http://ea-ada.grolier.com/cgi-bin/article?assetid=0070080-00>. Jiménez, Ramon L. “The Ides of March.” Caesar Against Rome. Westport: Praeger, 2000. 234-40 Knight, Judson. “The First Triumvirate.” Ancient Civilizations Almanac. Vol. 2. Boston: UXL, 2000. 401. -----. "Collapse of the Republic." Ancient Civilizations Almanac. Vol. 2. Boston: UXL, 2000. 398. Nardo, Don. "Fall of the Republic and Rise of the Empire." From Founding to Fall: A History of Rome. New York: Lucent Books, 2003. 67. Sage, Michael. “Gallic Wars.” MSN Encarta. 2007. Microsoft. 26 Dec. 2007 <http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761584392/Gallic_Wars.html>. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. “Julius Caesar.” Britannica Online School Edition. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 26 Dec. 2007 <http://school.eb.com.au/all/eb/article-9737>. Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius. “Julius Caesar.” The Twelve Caesars. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. 10-45. Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius. “Genealogical Tables of the Julian and Flavian Houses.” The Twelve Caesars. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. 275. Tranquillus, Gaius Suetonius. “Genealogical Tables of the Julian and Flavian Houses.” The Twelve Caesars. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. 277. Footnotes:
Picture Citations/Captions Picture:Untitled Map of The Roman Empire Put In: Introduction Caption: The Roman Empire From Beginning to End (worldcoincatalog.com 12/28/07) Citation-Untitled Map of The Roman Empire. Map. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.worldcoincatalog.com/AC/C5/RomanEmpire/Romans.htm>. Picture: Ancient Italy Put In: Civil War Caption: Ancient Italia in the Time of Caesar Citation-Ancient Italy. Map. 2 Jan. 2008 <http://www.unc.edu/awmc/awmcmap4.html>. Picture:Campaigns of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, 58-45 BC Put In: Campaign in Gaul Caption: Map of the Roman Empire during Caesar’s Campaigns (unc.edu 12/28/07) Citation-Campaigns of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, 58-45 BC. Map. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.unc.edu/awmc/awmcmap36.html>. Picture: Untitled Painting of the Assassination of Caesar Put In: Assassination Caption: Assassination of Caesar (listverse.com 12/28/07) Citation-Untitled Painting of the Assassination of Caesar. Picture of Painting. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://listverse.com/crime/the-10-most-famous-successful-assassinations/>. Picture: Untitled Statue of Caesar Put In: Campaign in Gaul Caption: Statue of Caesar (yourinnervagabond.com 12/28/07) Citation-Untitled Statue of Caesar. Picture of Statue. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.yourinnervagabond.com/blog/?m=200703>. Picture:Untitled Picture of Bust of Caesar Put In: Civil War Caption: Bust of Caesar (forumancientcoins.com 12/28/07) Citation-Untitled Bust of Caesar. Picture of Bust. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://forumancientcoins.com/NumisWiki/view.asp?key=julius%20caesar>. Picture:Untitled Picture of Bust of Caesar 2 Put In: Introduction Caption: Bust of Caesar 2 (Jiménez) Citation-Untitled Bust of Caesar. Picture of Bust. Vatican Museum, Vatican State. Caesar Against Rome. By Ramon J. Jiménez. Westport: Praegar, 2000. Picture:Untitled Picture of Bust of Pompey Put In: Civil War Caption: Bust of Pompey (Suetonius 21) Citation-Untitled Bust of Pompey. Picture of Bust. Ny Carlsberg, Copenhagen. The Twelve Caesars. By Gaius Suetonius Tranquillius. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. 21. Picture:Untitled Coin with Portrait of Caesar Put In: Introduction Caption: Roman Coin with Portrait of Caesar (Jiménez 226) Citation-Untitled Coin with Portrait of Caesar. Picture of Coin. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Caesar Against Rome. By Ramon J. Jiménez. Westport: Praegar, 2000. 226. Picture:Untitled Portrait Head of Caesar Put In: Early Life Caption: Portrait Head of Caesar (Suetonius 10) Citation-Untitled Portrait Head of Caesar. Picture of Bust. Turin. The Twelve Caesars. By Gaius Suetonius Tranquillius. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. 10. Picture:Untitled Portrait Head of Caesar 2 Put In: Consulship Caption: Portrait Head of Caesar (Suetonius 11) Citation-Untitled Portrait Head of Caesar. Picture of Bust. The Twelve Caesars. By Gaius Suetonius Tranquillius. New York: Penguin Books, 1980. 11. Picture:Untitled Map of the Roman World in the Time of Caesar Put In: After Death Caption: The Roman World in the Time of Caesar (Jiménez 16) Citation-Untitled Map of The Roman World in the Time of Caesar. Map. Caesar Against Rome. By Ramon L. Jiménez. Westport: Praeger, 2000. 16. Although his last name is Tranquillius, I refer to him as Suetonius because the library has that name on the barcode and that name is referred to throughout the book and throughout history. See entry in Bibliography.
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