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Pater Patriae: Cicero’s Republican LaborsContents
SummaryCicero was a famous, though pompous, Roman statesman and orator from Arpinum, who was heralded as a pater patriae for his actions and handling of issues during his time as Consul, and was a major political figure in the years leading towards the fall of the Republic, interacting with such figures as Caesar, Mark Antony, and Octavian. IntroductionMarcus Tullius Cicero, the famous Roman statesman, lived a fascinating life. He played an important role in Roman history, accomplishing a great deal as a politician and a lawyer, had a life riddled with interest and intrigue, and was alive through some key times, events, and developments of the history of the Republic of Rome, including the assassination of the infamous Julius Caesar. He was even once said to be a father of his country, a pater patriae, after he quelled a conspiracy. Early AgeCicero was born in 106 B.C.E. to a wealthy equestrian family of Arpinum (the same city from which the famous Marius came from), though his father was undistinguished by fame of any sort. (“Cicero, Marcus Tullius”, Encyclopædia Britannica) He was educated thoroughly in Greece and Rome alongside his brother, Quintus, and was said to show promise early on. In 89 B.C.E., Cicero served in the military under Pompeius Strabo, the father of the well-known Pompey the Great (“Cicero, Marcus Tullius”, Encyclopædia Britannica). Cicero’s law career gained distinction after his defense of Sextus Roscius, who had been accused of parricide (the killing of one’s own father) in 81 B.C.E. Cicero won his case, showing that the blame for the murder ought to be laid onto a minion of Sulla. Cicero gained merit for being against Sulla as a result of this, and left Rome for Greece to evade Sulla’s ire, though he clamed that it was to be for his health. Cicero returned to Rome in 77 B.C.E., after Sulla’s death. (Matyszak, 212). In 75, Cicero became a Quaestor in Sicily, with the task of sending grain to Rome to aid the shortage in the city. Despite his job well done, it went relatively unnoticed. (Matyszak, 214) A couple years after, he took Terentia as his wife, from the powerful Terentius clan. They had two children; a son, also by the name of Marcus Tullius, and a daughter, named Tullia. Around the same time, as a testament to Cicero’s oratorical abilities, he fought a case against Verres for the extortion of the Sicilian people; After Cicero was through, Verres did not bother to wait for a verdict, and fled into exile (Matyszak, 212). Cicero & Catiline’s TreacheryUsing the help of the Terentius clan Cicero was able to become praetor at the earliest possible age of 37, in 68 B.C.E., a year after his Aedileship in 69. (Cicero, VI) Several years later, Cicero was elected as Consul in 63. (Cicero, VI) One of the citizens who had ran against Cicero for consulship was Lucius Sergius Catilina, now known as Catiline. (“Catiline.” Encyclopædia Britannica) Having lost, Catiline turned his efforts towards uprising, a conspiracy to dispose of the Consuls and seize power for himself. He engendered a large following, proposing to many of his followers that he would cancel their debts, and proscribe some of the wealthy citizens, naturally appealing to the poorer of the Roman citizens. Cicero, however, was not languishing in the dark – he had a web of spies and informants keeping him well up-to-date on Catiline’s conspiracy. He gave a series of orations to the senate as a result, to convince them of the danger of Catiline, charging him with treason – and was granted senatus consultum ultimum – martial law, in essence. (“Catiline.” Encyclopædia Britannica) Despite this, the Senate was not entirely convinced until Cicero’s informants provided documents proving the conspiracy’s existence. Catiline fled from Rome to his army at Faesulae. As they tried to enter Gaul, he was slain and his army demolished. Cicero rounded up some of those loyal to Catiline in Rome and had them executed without a trial. For the way he handled the conspiracy, Cicero was heralded as the pater patriae by Catulus, a great honor. (Catiline." Encyclopædia Britannica) Clodius vs. CiceroDespite this, years later, Cicero clashed with Publius Clodius Pulcher, who had been accused of blasphemy. Cicero destroyed his defense, though Clodius managed to bribe the jury out of the charge. Cicero’s offensive in the courts, however, had angered Clodius. It was no aid to Cicero that he had earlier, in 60 B.C.E., declined to join Crassus, Caesar, and Pompey in a political alliance, deciding it was unconstitutional (“Cicero, Marcus Tullius”, Encyclopædia Britannica). Thus, he had found himself sided against the triumvirate. Clodius, however, was in their favor and was allowed to change to plebeian status so that he may adopt the position of Tribune, which by the cursus honorum is allowed to veto decisions of the Consul and the like. He charged Cicero in 58 B.C.E with execution of Roman citizens with no trial. Cicero fled to Macedonia, exiled. It was not long after, however, that Clodius fell out of favor with the Triumvirate, and Cicero was summoned back to Rome in 57 B.C.E. (Matyszak, 214). However, Cicero began to show independence again, and the triumvirate responded by forcing him to defend the three’s minions in court, humiliating him. (Matyszak, 214) Despite this, Cicero replaced the deceased Crassus in the elite college of Augurs, and later on in 51 he was forced to become governor of Cicilia. He did it well, like most of his jobs, though after a small skirmish, Cicero headed back to Rome to celebrate his victories. (Matyszak, 214) Death & the Beginning of the End of the RepublicYears later, in 44 B.C.E., Caesar was assassinated. Cicero hadn’t been informed of the plan, and was as such not part of the conspiracy or the assassination. This is not to say that he was unhappy with Caesar’s death. Cicero was not fond of Mark Antony ( a.k.a. Marcus Antonitus), and gave a series of orations railing against him, called the Phillipics; He very much supported Octavian, perhaps hoping to take advantage of the young man. Despite this, Octavian and Antony eventually came to terms to form another triumvirate, the third of whom was Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Part of Antony’s terms for the alliance, however, was the proscription of Cicero and his family. Cicero fled Rome, but was not especially adept at such. In 43 B.C.E., Cicero was killed (Clayton). His killer was said to be Popilius Laenas, whom Cicero had defended in a parricide case once before (Carcopino, 118). His death was brave, however, as Cicero ordered his servants to set down the litter in which he was carried, and he stuck out his neck to take the hit that would kill him. His head and hands were severed and displayed on the rostra in Rome as an example of those who opposed the triumvirate’s power (Cicero, X). ConclusionIt is very clear that Cicero was an important figure in Roman history, from a birth of relative anonymity to wielding great power at the height of the Roman Republic, to a brave death. His orations are still well known and many are well documented, as he is known to be one of the best political and law speakers in history. He crushed a conspiracy against the republic, and played many roles throughout the year in the political realm of Rome. While Dante would undoubtedly place Cicero in the first terrace of purgatory after his death for his extensive pride, he accomplished a great deal and had quite enough reasons to be proud. |
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BibliographyCarcopino, Jérôme. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. Ed. Henry T. Rowell. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1940. "Catiline." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9021829>. "Cicero, Marcus Tullius." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9082616>. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Cicero’s Orations. Ed. Edward Brooks, Jr. Trans. C. D. Yonge. Philadelphia: David McKay, 1896. Cowell, F. R. Cicero and the Roman Republic. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1964. Matyszak, Philip. Chronicle of the Roman Republic. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003. Nardo, Don. Influential Figures of Ancient Rome. San Diego: Lucent Books, 2003. Latium: Map 1. Map. LacusCurtius. 27 Sept. 2001. 3 Jan. 2008 <http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/Images/Maps/Periods/Roman/Places/Europe/ Italia/Latium/1*.jpg>.
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